IB Spanish B

1. Read the writing task as a brief: text type, reader, register

Learning goal: Decide text type, audience and register before writing a word of Spanish.

The official brief describes Paper 1 as one writing task chosen from three, worth 30 marks. Each task names a text type, a reader and a purpose. Your first job is to underline those, then decide register: formal (usted, formal greetings) or informal (tú, relaxed phrases).

Text types come with conventions. A formal letter needs a formal opening and closing, a clear request and polite forms. A blog entry allows first person, opinion and a lively voice. Matching conventions shows control of audience.

The IB lists five prescribed themes: identities, experiences, human ingenuity, social organization and sharing the planet. Link the task to a theme so your ideas stay relevant.

Read the task twice. The first time, underline the text type, the reader and the purpose. The second time, note any content points the task asks for, such as giving an opinion or suggesting a solution. Missing one required point costs more than a small grammar slip, so list the points in your plan and tick them off as you write.

Plan the register early and keep it. If the reader is a principal or a company, use usted, formal greetings and polite forms from start to finish. If the reader is a friend, use tú and a relaxed tone. Do not switch halfway. The brief gives Paper 1 as one writing task from a choice of three worth 30 marks, so choose the task where you can use the grammar and vocabulary you control best, and not the one that seems most interesting.

Worked example

Task: write to a school principal asking to start a recycling club. Choose the register and opening.

1. Reader: a principal, so formal.
2. Use usted forms.
3. Opening: Estimado director:
4. Request: ¿Podría considerar la creación de un club de reciclaje?

Mental model: Match the reader.

Common trap: Using usted with a friend.

2. Preterite or imperfect: background versus event

Learning goal: Choose between the two past tenses by function.

The preterite (pretérito indefinido) tells completed events: ayer compré pan. The imperfect (imperfecto) describes background, habits and ongoing actions: cuando era niño, jugaba en la calle. Think of the imperfect as the scene and the preterite as the action that moves the story.

When both appear in one sentence, the ongoing action is imperfect and the interrupting event is preterite: mientras cocinaba, sonó el teléfono.

Time words help: ayer, anoche and de repente often signal a preterite; siempre, todos los días and mientras signal an imperfect.

A simple rule helps: the imperfect describes the scene, the preterite moves the story forward. Descriptions of weather, age, feelings and habits in the past take the imperfect (hacía frío, era pequeña, siempre jugábamos). Single completed actions that make the plot advance take the preterite (llegué, abrió, dijeron).

Time words give clues but do not decide alone. Words such as ayer and de repente often go with the preterite, and words such as siempre and todos los días often go with the imperfect, but always check the meaning. Some verbs change meaning: conocí means I met, and conocía means I knew. In a narrative, practise alternating the two in a single paragraph so that background and event are clearly separate.

Practise by writing a six-sentence story about a day at school, with three sentences of background in the imperfect and three events in the preterite. Underline each verb and say in the margin why you chose that tense. This quick habit makes the choice automatic under exam pressure.

Worked example

Choose: 'Cuando era niño, ___ en la calle todos los días.' Options: 1 jugué, 2 jugaba.

1. Cuando era niño sets a past scene.
2. Todos los días marks a habit.
3. Habits use the imperfect.
4. Answer: jugaba (2).

Mental model: Ongoing equals imperfect.

Common trap: Using the preterite for both.

3. Ser and estar: identity, events, and states

Learning goal: Choose between the two verbs for 'to be'.

Ser describes identity, origin, profession, time and characteristics: ella es profesora; son las cinco. Estar describes states, emotions and location of things: está cansada; el libro está en la mesa.

A common exception: events use ser for their location. La fiesta es en mi casa. Meanings can change with the verb: es aburrido (boring), está aburrido (bored).

When unsure, ask whether you describe what something is or the state it is in now.

Use ser for identity, origin, time, material and permanent or defining qualities (es profesora, es de Chile, son las tres). Use estar for location and for states or conditions that can change (está en casa, estoy cansado). Estar is also used with the gerund for actions in progress (está lloviendo).

Some adjectives change meaning with the verb: ser aburrido means to be boring, estar aburrido means to be bored; ser listo means to be clever, estar listo means to be ready. Learn these pairs as chunks. A frequent error is using ser for location of a person or object, so check each sentence by asking whether you are saying where or how someone is, which takes estar, or what someone is, which takes ser. Events take ser for where they happen (la fiesta es en mi casa).

Build a small bank of sentences you can reuse: soy estudiante, estoy en el instituto, es importante, estamos preocupados, la reunión es en el salón. Each shows a different use of ser or estar, and learning them whole keeps you from stopping to think about the rule during a task.

Worked example

Choose: 'La fiesta ___ en mi casa.' 1 es, 2 está. Explain.

1. The subject is an event.
2. Events take ser for location.
3. So es.
4. Answer 1.

Mental model: Use estar for states.

Common trap: Using ser for emotions.

4. The subjunctive after wishes and doubts

Learning goal: Recognise the triggers and form the present subjunctive.

The present subjunctive appears after expressions of wish, emotion, doubt or influence when the subject changes: espero que tú vengas; quiero que me ayudes; no creo que sea posible. If the subject stays the same, use an infinitive: quiero ayudar.

Form: take the yo present stem and swap vowels (-ar verbs take e endings, -er/-ir take a). For example, venir gives vengo, so venga, vengas.

Do not use the subjunctive after certainty: creo que viene. Check for que and a change of subject.

The subjunctive is a mood, not a tense. It appears in a subordinate clause after que when the main clause expresses a wish, an emotion, a doubt, an order or a request, and when the subject of the two clauses is different (quiero que vengas). If the subject is the same, use the infinitive instead (quiero venir).

Learn a few reliable triggers: querer que, esperar que, es importante que, dudar que, no creer que, para que. The present subjunctive is formed from the yo form of the present, dropping the o and adding the opposite vowel: hablo gives hable, como gives coma. Learn the common irregulars: sea, vaya, tenga, haga. In writing, one or two correct subjunctives in the right place show range, but accuracy matters more than the number.

Make flash cards with a trigger phrase on one side and a full example on the other: espero que, es necesario que, dudo que. Review ten cards a day. After two weeks, write a short paragraph that uses five of them correctly, and ask your teacher to check the forms.

Worked example

Choose: 'Espero que tú ___ a la fiesta.' 1 vienes, 2 vengas.

1. Espero que expresses a wish.
2. The subject changes (yo to tú).
3. Use the subjunctive.
4. Answer: vengas (2).

Mental model: Use the subjunctive.

Common trap: Using indicative after quiero que.

5. Connectors: make paragraphs move

Learning goal: Link ideas with a range of connectors.

Good Spanish writing uses connectors to show relationships between ideas. For addition: además, también. For contrast: sin embargo, aunque, pero. For cause: porque, ya que. For result: por eso, así que. For sequence: primero, luego, finalmente.

Avoid repeating the same connector. Use each only when the logic fits: 'aunque' needs an actual contrast, and it can take the subjunctive for a hypothetical contrast.

Place connectors at the start of a sentence or clause; they guide the reader through the argument.

Connectors tie sentences together and make your ideas flow. Basic ones such as y, pero and porque are useful, but a wider range raises the quality of your writing: sin embargo (however), por eso (for that reason), además (besides), aunque (although), en cambio (on the other hand), por lo tanto (therefore).

Use connectors for a purpose. Choose one that shows the relationship you mean, such as contrast, cause or addition, and put it where it helps the reader. Do not start every sentence with a connector. Note that aunque can take the subjunctive when it means even if for an uncertain situation (aunque llueva, saldré). Check your final draft for repeated connectors and replace some with others that fit the meaning.

Also vary the position of connectors: some can sit in the middle of a sentence, between commas, as in esto, sin embargo, no es fácil.

Keep a list of connectors sorted by job: addition, contrast, cause, result and conclusion. Choose one from each group for every text you write. Check that the connector matches the logic, since a wrong connector, such as pero where por eso is needed, confuses the reader.

Worked example

Count the connectors: 'Primero, me gusta el barrio. Además, es seguro. Sin embargo, es caro. Por eso, busco otro.'

1. Primero: sequence.
2. Además: addition.
3. Sin embargo: contrast.
4. Por eso: result; total 4.

Mental model: Include porque.

Common trap: Counting only sentence starts.

6. Listening: predict, listen for numbers, check units

Learning goal: Use question words to predict and avoid number traps.

The brief describes Paper 2 as separate sections for listening (25 marks) and reading (40 marks). In listening, read the questions first, predict what type of answer is needed (a number, a reason, a place) and listen for it.

Numbers are classic traps in Spanish: quince versus cincuenta, dieciséis versus sesenta. Time expressions also differ: las cinco menos veinte is 4:40, not 5:20.

Write what you hear, then check it matches the question, including units such as euros, minutos or kilómetros.

Before the recording starts, use the time to read the questions. Underline the question words (quién, cuándo, cuánto, por qué) and predict the type of answer: a person, a time, a number or a reason. Look at the options for words that are similar, since the recording often mentions a wrong option and then corrects it.

Numbers and times are common traps. Write down every number you hear as digits, with the unit, and listen for corrections such as no, perdón, mejor. The brief gives the Paper 2 listening section as 25 marks, so each mark matters. If you miss an item, move on at once, since dwelling on it makes you miss the next. Use the second hearing to check answers and to find missing details.

After each practice recording, make a short note of the traps you fell for, such as numbers, negatives or corrections. A page of these notes after ten recordings will show your pattern, and you can then train that skill on purpose rather than hoping it improves by itself.

Worked example

You hear 'Son las cinco menos veinte.' What minutes past 4 o'clock is it?

1. Menos veinte means twenty before.
2. Five minus twenty minutes is 4:40.
3. That is 40 minutes past 4.
4. Answer 40.

Mental model: Subtract 15 from 8:00.

Common trap: Choosing 8:15.

7. Reading: infer, don't guess from false friends

Learning goal: Use context and avoid false friends in comprehension.

In reading, unfamiliar words can often be inferred from context, word families and cognates. But false friends mislead: embarazada means pregnant, not embarrassed; actual means current; asistir means to attend.

When a word is uncertain, check whether the sentence still makes sense with your interpretation, and use the question to confirm.

Answer in the form the question requires. If it asks for a reason, give a reason, not a general summary.

Read the whole text once for the general idea before answering questions. Then go back to the question and find the matching part of the text. The answer is usually a paraphrase, not a copy, so look for words that mean the same thing as the question words rather than for identical words.

False friends cause mistakes: actual means current, not actual; embarazada means pregnant, not embarrassed; librería is a bookshop, not a library; éxito means success, not exit. Check an unfamiliar word against its context before assuming it looks like English. The brief gives the reading section as 40 marks, so spend time on careful checking. If you cannot find an answer, reread the paragraph around the likely place.

After answering, check that each answer is supported by a phrase in the text and that you have not added an idea from your own opinion.

Read a short Spanish article each week and write down five unfamiliar words you guessed from context, then check them in a dictionary. Compare your guesses with the real meanings. This builds the habit of using context first, which works better than translating word by word under time pressure.

Worked example

'La situación actual del barrio es difícil.' Does 'actual' mean 1 real or 2 current? Explain.

1. Actual in Spanish means present or current.
2. The sentence describes the neighbourhood now.
3. Real would not fit the sense of time.
4. Answer 2.

Mental model: Check a dictionary pattern.

Common trap: Assuming embarrassed.

8. The individual oral: stimulus, theme and conversation

Learning goal: Prepare for the oral with structure and follow-up skills.

The brief describes the individual oral as a 30-mark internal assessment worth 25 percent of the final grade. At SL the stimulus is a visual image linked to a course theme; at HL it is an excerpt from one of the two literary works studied.

A strong presentation names what you see, links it to the theme, gives an opinion with reasons and then invites discussion. Practise short, clear sentences that you can say without notes.

In the conversation, extend answers: give a reason, an example and a contrast. Avoid one-word answers.

The individual oral is an internal assessment of 30 marks according to the brief. It is based on a stimulus linked to one of the five prescribed themes. Take the preparation time to look at the image or text, decide which theme it connects to, and plan a short opening that describes it and ties it to a theme with your own ideas.

In the conversation, give full answers with reasons and examples, and do not stop at a single sentence. If you do not understand a question, ask politely for repetition, for example ¿Podría repetir la pregunta, por favor? Use a range of tenses and connectors. Practise with a partner, and record yourself to hear where you hesitate. Check the official page and your teacher for current timings and rules.

In your preparation, write a one-line link between each theme and a personal example, such as a trip, a hobby or a school project. These examples are ready to use whenever a stimulus matches a theme, which lets you speak naturally and with details instead of searching for ideas.

Worked example

Which plan is best for a visual stimulus: A) list objects; B) describe, link to a theme, give an opinion and reasons; C) read a script? Enter 1 for A, 2 for B, 3 for C.

1. A lists without meaning.
2. C is rehearsed, not responsive.
3. B shows description, link and opinion.
4. Answer B (2).

Mental model: A good oral argues.

Common trap: Choosing a script.

9. Formal writing: polite requests and complaints

Learning goal: Write a clear formal request with polite forms.

Formal letters in Spanish begin with Estimado/a señor/a and end with Atentamente or Un cordial saludo. Use usted forms and the conditional for polite requests: ¿Podría informarme? Me gustaría solicitar...

Structure: introduce who you are, state the reason for writing, make your request and close politely. Keep paragraphs short and logical, with connectors.

Avoid abrupt orders like Dame la información. Choose polite phrases such as Le agradecería que...; this needs the subjunctive after que.

A formal complaint has a clear shape: greeting, reason for writing, the problem with details, what you want done, polite closing. Keep each part short. State facts calmly, since an angry tone is less persuasive than a firm and polite one. Use the conditional for polite requests (me gustaría, podría) and phrases like le agradecería que.

Note that le agradecería que is followed by the subjunctive: le agradecería que me devolviera el dinero. Use formal closings such as Atentamente or Le saluda atentamente, and sign with your full name. Avoid contractions of tone such as colloquial words and exclamations. Check that every verb addressed to the reader is in the usted form, and that the problem, the date and the request are all present.

Read the finished letter aloud once, and ask yourself whether a stranger could understand the problem and the request without any other information.

Write one formal complaint in full, then shorten it to a plan with five lines, and finally write it again from the plan in fifteen minutes. This shows you what the core of the text is, and it trains you to produce a clear formal letter within the time available.

Worked example

Choose the polite request: 1 Dame la información. 2 ¿Podría darme la información?

1. Option 1 is an informal command.
2. Option 2 uses the conditional and usted.
3. The letter is to an organisation.
4. Answer 2.

Mental model: Use polite forms.

Common trap: Choosing the blunt command.

10. Accuracy checks: gender, agreement and accents

Learning goal: Run a short checklist on your own writing.

After drafting, check four things. Gender: el problema, el día and el mapa are masculine; la mano and la foto are feminine. Number: adjectives agree with nouns in gender and number. Accents: esta (this) and está (is); tu (your) and tú (you). Verbs: agreement with the subject and tense.

Read for one error type at a time. A checklist is more reliable than rereading for everything at once.

Keep an error log of your own recurring mistakes so your checks target them.

A final check before handing in should be short and systematic. Read once for each of three things: noun and adjective agreement, verb endings and tenses, and accents and spelling. Reading three times for one thing each is more effective than reading once for everything.

Gender and number are the most common slips: la problema is wrong because problema is masculine (el problema), and las manos is right because mano is feminine. Accents change meaning in pairs such as si and sí, el and él, mas and más. Make a personal list of the errors you repeat and check that list every time. Accuracy is a skill that improves quickly when you track mistakes.

Leave a minute for a last glance at verb endings in the sentences where you changed your mind while writing, since these are where slips happen most.

Use a second colour pen for corrections when you check your own work, and count the corrections by type. If agreement errors are most common, add a special agreement check to your routine. Small, targeted changes bring larger gains than trying to fix everything at once.

Worked example

Count the errors in 'Los casas son grande.'

1. Casas is feminine plural: las.
2. Grande must agree: grandes.
3. The verb son is correct.
4. Two errors.

Mental model: Verify gender and agreement.

Common trap: Counting only the article.

11. Por and para: cause, purpose and destination

Learning goal: Choose between por and para by meaning.

Por and para both often translate as for, but they work differently. Para looks forward: it points to a purpose, a goal, a destination, a deadline or a recipient (estudio para aprobar, el regalo es para ti, salgo para Madrid, es para el lunes). Por looks back at a cause or moves through a space or time (lo hice por ti, pasamos por el parque, por la mañana).

Por is also used for exchange and means (pagué diez euros por el libro, hablamos por teléfono) and for the agent in a passive (escrito por ella). Para is used with an opinion (para mí, es difícil) and a comparison with what is expected (para ser joven, sabe mucho). Learn these as chunks with examples, rather than from a single translation.

A useful test for purpose: ask whether you can replace the word with in order to. If so, use para. A useful test for cause: ask whether you can replace it with because of. If so, use por. These tests do not cover every case, so also learn the fixed phrases such as por favor, por ejemplo, por eso and para siempre.

In your writing, a correct use of por and para on the first try shows control. Check each one at the editing stage. A common error is por to express purpose (estudio por aprobar), which should be para. The sentences here are examples for practice and any Spanish text you read will show many more.

Keep a short list of your own por and para mistakes, and review it before every writing task so that the same slip does not return.

Worked example

Choose: 'Estudio ___ ser médico.' and 'Gracias ___ tu ayuda.'

1. Purpose: para ser médico.
2. Cause of thanks: por tu ayuda.
3. Answers: para and por.

Mental model: Choose por or para.

Common trap: Using por for purpose.

12. Object pronouns: me lo dio, se lo di

Learning goal: Place and combine direct and indirect object pronouns.

Object pronouns replace nouns that have already been mentioned. Direct object pronouns answer what or whom: lo, la, los, las (leo el libro, lo leo). Indirect object pronouns answer to whom or for whom: me, te, le, nos, os, les (doy el libro a Ana, le doy el libro).

When both appear together, the indirect comes first and the direct second: me lo da, te la envío. When le or les meets lo, la, los or las, le and les change to se to avoid two l sounds: le doy el libro becomes se lo doy. The se here has nothing to do with reflexive se; it just replaces le or les.

Placement matters. Pronouns go before a conjugated verb (lo veo) and may be attached to an infinitive or a gerund (quiero verlo, estoy viéndolo), and to affirmative commands (dímelo). With negative commands they go before the verb (no me lo digas). An accent may be needed when you attach pronouns to keep the stress in the right place.

Use pronouns in your writing to avoid repeating nouns, which makes your text smoother. Check the order and the change to se each time. These examples are for practice, and reading short Spanish texts will show many more patterns.

Make ten sentences with por and ten with para from your own life, then swap with a partner and mark each other's. Disagreements are useful, because they show which cases you have not yet learned as fixed phrases and need to add to your list for revision.

Worked example

Replace the nouns: 'Doy el libro a Ana.'

1. Direct object: el libro, so lo.
2. Indirect object: a Ana, so le.
3. Le lo becomes se lo: Se lo doy.

Mental model: Which word replaces le?

Common trap: Writing le lo.

13. Conditional and si clauses: real and unreal situations

Learning goal: Form si clauses for likely and unlikely conditions.

A si clause states a condition. For a likely or real condition, use the present after si and the present or future in the result: si llueve, nos quedamos en casa; si estudias, aprobarás. For an unlikely or imaginary condition, use the imperfect subjunctive after si and the conditional in the result: si tuviera tiempo, viajaría más.

The conditional is formed from the infinitive plus the endings ía, ías, ía, íamos, íais, ían (hablaría, comerían). Some verbs are irregular: tendría, haría, podría, diría, vendría. The imperfect subjunctive is formed from the third person plural preterite, dropping ron and adding ra, ras, ra, ramos, rais, ran (tuvieron gives tuviera).

Never put the conditional right after si. Si tendría tiempo is wrong; say si tuviera tiempo. This is a very common error. The conditional is also used for polite requests and advice (me gustaría, podría ayudarme, yo que tú iría).

Use these structures in discussions of the future and of imagined situations, such as in a blog or an opinion piece. They show range and control. The sentences here are examples for practice, and you should check them against your classroom materials.

Say each sentence aloud once with the pronouns and once without, to hear how much smoother the version with pronouns sounds to a Spanish ear.

Practise by taking a short paragraph with several nouns and rewriting it using pronouns in place of the repeated nouns. Read the result aloud to hear whether it flows, and check every le or les that stands before lo, la, los or las, since each must change to se.

Worked example

Complete: 'Si tuviera dinero, ___ un coche.' Choose the form of comprar.

1. The condition is unreal.
2. The result uses the conditional.
3. Answer: compraría.

Mental model: Conditional of sacar.

Common trap: Putting the conditional after si.

14. Giving and defending an opinion

Learning goal: Express opinions with reasons and examples in speech and writing.

An opinion needs three parts to be convincing: the opinion itself, a reason and an example. A phrase such as en mi opinión or creo que opens the opinion. After creer que and pensar que in the affirmative, use the indicative (creo que es importante). After no creer que, use the subjunctive (no creo que sea fácil).

Reasons use porque, ya que or debido a. Examples use por ejemplo or como. A counterpoint shows that you can see another view: aunque es verdad que, sin embargo, por otro lado. Ending with a conclusion such as en definitiva or por todo esto gives the answer a clear finish.

Vary your openings so that your opinions do not all begin with creo que. Try me parece que, desde mi punto de vista, a mi modo de ver, and personally está claro que. Be careful with me gusta and similar verbs: they agree with the thing liked (me gustan los deportes).

In the oral, speak in full sentences and pause to think rather than fill silence with a single word. In writing, keep to the text type and the register. These phrases are examples for you to adapt, and your teacher may suggest more.

Learn the conditional result first, since it is the form that the exam tasks most often expect after an unreal si clause.

Write five dreams about an imaginary life that begin with si tuviera and end with a conditional, such as si tuviera una casa grande, invitaría a todos mis amigos. Check each verb form. These sentences are also useful in the oral, when you are asked what you would do in a situation.

Worked example

Develop: 'Creo que el transporte público es importante.' Add a reason.

1. Add porque.
2. Example: porque reduce el tráfico y la contaminación.
3. The reason supports the opinion.

Mental model: Present subjunctive of ser.

Common trap: Using indicative after no creer que.

15. Paper 2 technique: marks, time and checking

Learning goal: Plan time for the listening and reading sections using the marks.

The brief for Language B gives Paper 2 as separate sections for listening and reading, with listening worth 25 marks and reading worth 40 marks. Use these figures to plan time. The reading section carries more marks, so give it the larger share, but never leave a section unfinished. Check the official page for the current times and any change for the new course.

For listening, use every gap to read ahead. Underline question words and predict the type of answer. Write short answers as you listen and do not try to write whole sentences. Use the second hearing to fill gaps and to check numbers and negatives.

For reading, skim the text for the topic, then read the questions, then read again closely. Match the question to the paragraph, and look for paraphrases. Do not use outside knowledge when the text gives an answer. If a question asks for a reason, check that your answer states a reason and not just a fact.

Leave a few minutes at the end of each section to check. Look for blank answers, questions that ask for two points, and numbers with the wrong unit. The time figures in the worked example are invented, and the marks come from the fetched brief.

Prepare a short list of opinion openers and counterpoint phrases on a card and use it for a week of oral practice. Try to use a new phrase in every answer. By the end of the week, the phrases will be part of your natural speech and you will no longer need the card.

Worked example

An invented paper gives 60 minutes for reading. How many minutes per mark for 40 marks?

1. 60 / 40 = 1.5.
2. About one and a half minutes per mark.
3. Plan the reading by marks.

Mental model: Marks for reading.

Common trap: Mixing up listening and reading marks.

16. Text types: blog, article, email and speech

Learning goal: Match structure and tone to the text type in the writing task.

Paper 1 asks for one writing task from a choice of three, and each task names a text type. Each type has features that readers expect. A blog post has a catchy title, a personal voice, short paragraphs and a direct question to the reader. An article has a headline, a neutral voice, facts and quotations from sources, and a clear conclusion.

An email has a subject line, a greeting that matches the reader, a clear reason for writing and a closing line. A speech addresses the audience directly with phrases such as queridos compañeros, uses repetition and rhetorical questions, and ends with a call to act. Learn the opening and closing formulas for each type in both formal and informal register.

Match the grammar to the type. A blog about a personal experience may use past tenses and opinions. An article about a problem may use the present and impersonal forms such as se dice que. A speech about change may use the subjunctive and the conditional. Keep to the word count your task sets, and check the official page for current requirements.

Plan with a short list of features of the type and tick them off while writing. Examiners look for control of the text type as part of the writing mark, so use at least two typical features. The sample phrases here are examples for practice.

Before writing, choose which two features of the text type you will certainly include, and mark them in your plan. When you finish, check that both are there and that the register matches the reader. This habit takes thirty seconds and protects the marks for text type.

Worked example

Task: write a speech to classmates about recycling. Name two features to include.

1. Direct address: queridos compañeros.
2. A call to act at the end.
3. Repetition or a rhetorical question also helps.

Mental model: Choose the plural greeting.

Common trap: Using a letter opening for a speech.